A Guide to Benevolence in Confucianism

Chapter 1: Introduction

In 551 BCE, Confucius was born to a once aristocratic family in a small state called Lu in East China. During his lifetime, he endeavoured towards the “impossible” goal of restoring order to an otherwise chaotic environment.

By the time he died at the age of 73, his teachings had spread throughout the state and beyond. And 2,500 years later, his name has come to be associated with many of the foundational concepts and cultural practices in East Asia, making him arguably the most significant thinker in East Asian history.

Confucius believed that the cultivation of virtue leads to the ordering of the world. An individual who has cultivated virtue is called a gentleman. In addition to the virtues of righteousness, ritual propriety, wisdom and trustworthiness, the gentleman also possesses that of benevolence. In fact, Confucius argues that the gentleman does not go against benevolence even for the amount of time required to finish a meal:

The Master said, “Wealth and social eminence are things that all people desire, and yet unless they are acquired in the proper way I will not abide them. Poverty and disgrace are things that all people hate, and yet unless they are avoided in the proper way I will not despise them. If the gentleman abandons benevolence, how can he merit the name? The gentleman does not go against benevolence even for the amount of time required to finish a meal. Even in times of urgency or distress, he necessarily accords with it.” (Confucius, 500 BCE/2023, Book 4 Verse 5)

However, what does it mean to possess the virtue of benevolence? Given that the virtue has also been translated as humaneness, humanity, love, goodness, man-to-man-ness, human-heartedness, kindness, etc., its meaning can be hard to grasp.

In this article, I share one understanding of its meaning that is grounded in the golden rule.

Chapter 2: Benevolence and Reciprocity

To understand benevolence, it is useful to understand reciprocity. In Confucianism, individuals who possess benevolence practise reciprocity. For example, Mencius argues that there is nothing closer to benevolence than reciprocity:

Mencius said, “The 10,000 things are all brought to completion by us. To turn toward oneself and discover Sincerity — there is no greater delight than this. To firmly act out of reciprocity — there is nothing closer to benevolence than this.” (Mencius, 300 BCE/2023, Book 7A Chapter 4)

Chapter 3: Reciprocity and the Golden Rule

It is through its relationship to reciprocity that benevolence’s relationship to the golden rule becomes apparent. Indeed, the golden rule is often called the “principle of reciprocity”.

The golden rule can be expressed as either a negative injunction or a positive injunction. In its negative form, the rule states that we should not treat others as we would not like others to treat us. And in its positive form, it states that we should treat others as we would like others to treat us.

Regardless of its expression, Confucian texts suggest that individuals who practise reciprocity practise the golden rule in both its negative and positive forms.

First, individuals who practise reciprocity practise the negative golden rule. In The Analects, Confucius argues that reciprocity entails not imposing upon others what you yourself do not desire:

Zigong asked, “Is there one teaching that can serve as a guide for one’s entire life?” The Master answered, “Is it not reciprocity? Do not impose upon others what you yourself do not desire.” (Confucius, 500 BCE/2023, Book 15 Verse 24)

And in The Doctrine of the Mean, Tzu Su argues that reciprocity entails not inflicting upon others what you would be unwilling to accept if it were inflicted upon yourself:

The Master said, “Dutifulness and reciprocity are not far from the Way. Do not inflict upon others what you would be unwilling to accept if it were inflicted upon yourself.” (Tzu Su, n.d./2023, Chapter 13)

Second, individuals who practise reciprocity also practise the positive golden rule. In The Analects, Confucius argues that an individual who wants to take his stand should also help others to take their stand, and an individual who wants to realise himself should help others to realise themselves:

Zigong said, “If there were one able to bestow much upon the common people and bring succour to the multitudes, what would you make of him? Could such a person be called Good?” The Master said, “Why stop at Good? Such a person should surely be called a sage! Even someone like Yao or Shun would find such a task daunting. Desiring to take his stand, one who is Good helps others to take their stand; wanting to realise himself, he helps others to realise themselves. Being able to take what is near at hand as an analogy could perhaps be called the method of Goodness.” (Confucius, BCE 500/2023, Book 6 Verse 30)

And in The Doctrine of the Mean, Tzu Su argues that a gentleman should serve one’s father with what one seeks from one’s own son, serve one’s ruler with what one seeks from one’s own ministers, serve one’s elder brother with what one seeks from one’s younger brother and do for one’s friends what one seeks from them:

The Master said, “[…] There are four aspects to the Way of a gentleman, and I, Kongzi, have been unable to attain even one. ‘Serve one’s father with what one weeks from his own son’ — I have been unable to do this. ‘Serve one’s ruler with what one seeks from one’s own ministers’ — I have been unable to do this. ‘Serve one’s elder brother with what one seeks from one’s younger brother’ — I have been unable to do this. ‘First do for one’s friends what one seeks from them’ — I have been unable to do this.” (Tzu Su, n.d./2023, Chapter 13)

Chapter 4: Benevolence and the Golden Rule

Therefore, an individual who possesses the virtue of benevolence practises the golden rule. This is because an individual who possesses the virtue of benevolence practises reciprocity, and an individual who practises reciprocity practises the golden rule.

However, is the possession of benevolence just the practise of the golden rule? The Analects suggest otherwise. In his characteristic style of personalising his teachings to each student, Confucius offers two different interpretations of benevolence to Zhonggong and Yan Hui.

On the one hand, he teaches Zhonggong that benevolence is to not impose upon others what you yourself do not desire:

Zhonggong asked about benevolence. The master said, “’When in public, comport yourself as if you were receiving an important guest, and in your management of the common people, behave as if you were overseeing a great sacrifice.’ Do not impose upon others what you yourself do not desire. In this way, you will encounter no resentment in your public or private life.” Zhonggong replied, “Although I am not quick to understand, I ask permission to devote myself to this teaching.” (Confucius, 500 BCE/2023, Book 12 Verse 2)

However, on the other hand, he also teaches Yan Hui that benevolence is restraining yourself and returning to the rites:

Yan Hui asked about benevolence. The Master said, “Restraining yourself and returning to the rites constitutes benevolence. If for one day you managed to restrain yourself and return to the rites, in this way you could lead the entire world back to benevolence. The key to achieving benevolence lies within yourself — how could it come from others?” Yan Hui asked, “May I inquire as to the specifics?” The Master said, “Do not look unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not listen unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not speak unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not move unless it is in accordance with ritual.” Yan Hui replied, “Although I am not quick to understand, I ask permission to devote myself to this teaching.” (Confucius, 500 BCE/2023, Book 12 Verse 1)

Chapter 5: Conclusion

In conclusion, one understanding of benevolence grounds the virtue in the golden rule. In Confucianism, an individual who possesses the virtue of benevolence practises the golden rule, even if the practice of the golden rule itself is not sfficient to constitute benevolence.

More significantly, this understanding of benevolence highlights the importance of both empathy and self-knowledge in guiding our moral actions and decision-making. To possess benevolence, then, is to practise standing in the shoes of the Other, a practice best achieved by first gaining an intimate understanding of the Self and how we would or would not like to be treated.

Given the importance of benevolence, how can we start its cultivation? In a somewhat enigmatic fashion, Confucius suggests to look within oneself:

The Master said, “Is benevolence really so far away? If I simply desire benevolence, I will find that it is already there”. (Confucius, 500 BCE/2023, Book 7 Verse 30)

References

Confucius. (2023). The Analects (E. G. Slingerland, Trans.; P. J. Ivanhoe & B. W. Van Norden, Eds.). Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. (Original work published c. 500 BCE).

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2020). Confucius. In The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.

Gensler, H. J. (2013). Ethics and the golden rule. Routledge.

Mencius. (2023). The Mencius (B. W. Van Norden, Trans.; P. J. Ivanhoe & B. W. Van Norden, Eds.). Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. (Original work published c. 300 BCE).

Tzu Su. (2023). The Doctrine of the Mean (B. W. Van Norden, Trans.; P. J. Ivanhoe & B. W. Van Norden, Eds.). Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. (Original work n.d.).

Van Norden, B. W., & Ivanhoe, P. J. (2023). Readings in classical Chinese philosophy. Hackett Publishing.

Yao, X. (2000). An introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press.